OVERVIEW: Wayang, a term for puppetry, is considered to be the oldest freestanding puppet form with the earliest references dating from the 800s on the island of Java, Indonesia. Indonesia has a vast and rich history of puppetry, as there are many different styles of puppetry from Indonesia. The two most popular are Wayang Kulit (shadow puppets) and Wayang Golek (rod puppets).

“There are people who weep, are sad and aroused watching the puppets, though they know they are merely carved pieces of leather manipulated and made to speak.  These people are like men who, thirsting for sensuous pleasures, live in a world of illusion; they do not realize the magic hallucinations they see are not real” – A court poet during the reign of King Airlangaa (1035-1049) (“The History of Indonesian Puppet Theater (Wayang)”)

Wayang Kulit

Wayang puppet theater is the oldest continuously performed theatrical form among many of the genres of performing art in Bali.  Wayang Kulit, a specific form of Wayang, provides a unique combination of ritual, lesson and entertainment.  Wayang, loosely translated to mean puppet in Indionesian, comes from the Indonesian word for shadow, bayang. Kulit means skin or leather, which is the material that the puppet figures are carved from.  Therefore, Wayang Kulit is shadow puppetry that uses figures made from water buffalo hide, and this is considered to be the oldest freestanding puppet form.  Specifically, these carved flat leather puppets have highly stylistic shape and color to represent animals, demonic beings, mythical figures, human beings, heavenly beings and scenic props or figures.  Wayang has a generally fixed structure, and stock dramatic character, creativity and improvisation play a major role in the way the dalang puppet master shapes a performance.

The dalang, who functions as the puppeteer, narrator, shadow master, singer, playmaker and/or priest (in the ritualistic performance context) projects these puppets against a translucent white screen, using an oil lamp as a source of light to cast the shadow of the puppets from inside a booth. Depending on the genre of wayang, the dalang’s role may change slightly.  The dalang serves as a narrator for the dance-drama genre, artist and priest during ritualistic performances, and plays ALL roles (puppeteer, shadow master, narrator, artistic director, playmaker and priest) for shadow theater.  Wayang also takes different forms aside from Wayang Kulit: Wayang Lemah, which is similar to wayang kulit but takes place during the day and has no screen, wayang golek, which uses three dimensional rod puppets, and wayang wong, which replaces puppets with dancers that move around and relate as characters.

Most wayang plays are based on two Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and function to transmit both cultural traditions as well as contemporary social and political issues.  Wayang can be performed for both ritual and entertainment purposes, as performance may be purely sacred without human audiences (seen in daytime performances), or it can be purely secular (seen in tourist performances).  A majority of performances, however, are ceremonial as they are held for numerous religious and ritual celebrations like temple anniversaries, rites of passage and holidays.  In fact, shadow play originally was created to warn off evil spirits.  To win favor from the spirits, humans need to appease them by offering the best treatment possible.  Since art is the ideal antidote to evil (because it is the best product of a human being according to tradition), the philosophical basis of wayang by using music, song, dance and narrative is to exorcise the demonic.  This ritualistic act shows spectators what the demon looks like and returns it to its divine form.

The typical atmosphere of a wayang performance is long and therefore not necessarily quiet.  First, the audience is not required to pay an admissions fee to reserve a seat, but is expected to wear the traditional Balinese dress.  Temporary local games like gambling and food stands are also put up around the performance site to cater to the 350 plus people attending the performance.  During the performance, the audience is allowed to smoke, drink, eat, chat and react, and nothing abut the atmosphere is silent.  Often there are dogs barking, children playing, etc. but the dalang is trained to fully concentrate on the performance at hand and uses many theatrical tricks to control the audience’s attention.

 

Origin and History of Puppet Theater

There is a never ending debate about the origins of wayang, but many scholars believe that it was first created in Indonesia (primarily in Java and Bali) by the indigenous shamans.  Originally, wayang may have been displayed by the priests for both religious and entertainment purposes.  Preliminary offerings and the burning of incense show that the performances had a religious significance, as they served as an act of worship to gods or defied ancestors.  Thus, puppets were spirits invoked to give advice in trouble,
and based on myths of the origins of wayang and its role as an exorcising force, it was performed for the purpose of purification ceremonies.  The earliest references to shadow theater date from the 800s, and it is debated if puppetry is indigenous to Indonesia or was introduced from India or China.  Origins, argued by many scholars, point toward connections between the jesters and ancestral spirits, as the jester characters that appear in every play have no Indian precedent.  Additionally, Semar, the principal jester that is sometimes used in healing or protective rites, is said to be the ancestral sprite of the island of Java.

Some theorists even argue that shadow play was introduced to Java from India and that it did not originate in Java, however, there are records of Javanese wayang in 860 A.D. and 1157 A.D. that counter this argument.  There are also signs in Javanese and Malayan shadow play that point back to Indonesian Animism of the time prior to the introduction of Indian (Hindu) influence on the Javanese religion.  The technical terms for shadow play are also Javanese, so there seems to be no evidence that shadow play originated in India.  In fact, Indian traders may have just as well brought puppet theater back from their voyages to Java and introduced it in India at a very early period.   Thus, it seems most likely that the oldest known shadow play originated in Java at a time before Hinduism emerged on the island.  Later, Hinduism influenced shadow play significantly, and puppet theater spread across Java and to other parts of Southeast Asia.

Although debates still continue and regardless if wayang is indigenous to Indonesia or not, development of it took place during the Hindu-Buddhist period, especially between 800 and 1500.  By the 1700’s, most of the features that characterize contemporary wayang were in place, but this form had not yet spread beyond the regions where Javanese was spoken.  Slowly, Javanese performers from the area north of the island migrated to the highlands of West Java, where Sudanese was spoken.  Also at this time, the Dutch colonial government opened new roads, which facilitated this movement of people and arts.  Local aristocrats that worked under the colonial government invited dalang to settle in these cities, so by the late 1800’s shadow puppetry was rare in West Java, and wooded rod puppetry (wayang golek) became the favored form.  Original shadow play incorporated Brahmanism and Buddhism, and maybe even Shivaism (religion of Java in that era), but the oldest Javanese shadow play chose plots form Old Javanese or Malayo-Plynesian myths.  Later, these wayang plots were enriched by two epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata after imported from India.

 

The Dalang

The dalang, as stated previously is the most important artist in wayang performance as he functions as the playmaker, narrator, shadow master and sometimes priest.  The dalang manipulates the carved leather figures between the lamp and the screen to bring the shadow to life.  Further, he tells the story, manipulates the figures, interprets the characters and voices for each, and produces sound effects that punctuate speech and movement.  Therefore, the dalang learns to reshape his mouth and alter his entire vocal mechanism to systematically distinguish certain characters or types of characters.  The dalang also sings, cues musicians, speaks several languages, and blesses the performance.  Dalangs usually make their own puppets, and their creativity is said to be the ‘soul’ of wayang.  Although the dalang is the most important artist in wayang performance, he does not work alone.  The dalang often has two assistants, katengkong, that work closely with him to expedite specific theatrical tricks.  Most wayang types also employ about a dozen musicians that work closely with the dalang. 

The dalang’s skill is revealed in his ability to recreate the past, which he must do at the beginning of the performance and at certain parts of the play.  The dalang usually sings short descriptive passages from Old Javanese texts, and serves as a “medium” that is “entered” as a type of trance-communication.  There is a mystical communication in wayang, so the dalang creates a means of relationship with an unseen, essential audience.  Thus, puppets and dolls have been used as a spirit media throughout Southeast Asia as a means of communicating with the ancients.  For this reason, the dalang’s task is seen as fearsome, as he is required to exorcise danger or potential danger. For example, the dalang subdues dangerous power, like the power of Siva amuck or power of his demon son, Kala (time), who formerly dealt out death indiscriminately.  In other words, he kills and kills without intent until he in turn in is killed.  Shadow play works to eliminate this demonic, dangerous power by preventing the demons from getting into the performance area.  Specifically, music and shadow play move round and round in a circle, which keeps the demons out as demons are known to “think in straight lines” (Becker 160).  Once begun, the dalang may not (for any reason, including illness, storm, violence, power failure, etc.) stop the performance until the play has finished.  Thus, he has to be careful not to begin anything he cannot finish.

Also during the performance on stage, the dalang has to mention the names of ancient gods and their thousands of followers.  This tradition is part of the opening ceremony, which still lasts to this day even though ancient gods have been dethroned by Islam.  First a gong sounds to awaken them, and then the dalang makes an offering (like a dinner party) to all possible gods.  Although Islam now predominates social life in Indonesia, wayang performances still make offerings to the Hindu gods.  In fact, most dalang are now Muslim even though wayang encompasses these traditional Javanese stories and Hindu elements.  Thus, contemporary dalang consider themselves literary or spiritual descendants of the wali.

 

Plot and Performance Structure

“Wayang plots are built primarily around coincidence, a word which we in the West use to explain-away things of no meaning.  “A mere coincidence” cannot, in the West, sustain prolonged scrutiny and analysis.  In wayang theater coincidence motivates actions.  There is no casual reason that Arjuna, the frail wayang hero, meets Cakil, a small demon, in the forest, as he (or a counterpart) does in each wayang.  It is coincidence; it happens (jadi), and because they are who they are, they fight and Cakil dies.  Their meeting is not caused but is rather an accident, a coincidence of the these worlds.  Nothing in the prior events of the play, nor in the succeeding events, made it a necessary part of the plot.”  (Becker 145-146)

Coincidences are the way things happen in wayang – the way communication between unlikes occurs.  There is not much character development in all but a few wayang stories, and the plot can begin at any point in a story.  It has no temporal beginning, middle or end, but wayang plot must begin and end in certain places.  For instance, it cannot being and end anywhere, though it can begin and end anytime.  It must also pass through a certain place in the middle.  Thus, wayang has spacial, rather than temporal, beginning, middle and end.  For example, the story must begin and end in a court; first in the court of the antagonists and last in the court of the protagonists.  The middle section must be in nature (forest or mountain for example), which shows a trip or movement throughout the play.  Any scene in wayang plot may be transformed or omitted except for the constraint that the plot begin in a court, have its center in nature, and return to the court.  Thus, almost anything can be left out or added to the plot of a story.  There are no constraints on the time enacted within wayang, other than that the performance time must be a single day.

As described previously, wayang plot is built hierarchically in structures made up of three basic units.  This is described as the lakon (event) and is divided into three acts/scenes, each with the same internal structure:

1. Jejer – static audience in a court room or hermitage where a problem arises and a plan is formed
2. Two or more Adegan – always involving a journey away from the audience place
3. Perang – battle at the end of a journey

Dalangs may invent additional scenes too.  Sulukus, poetic passages sung in Old Javanese, are also important elements of the plot:

1. Pathetan – descriptive verses that are accompanied by several instruments
2. Sendon – lyric emotional verses with only a few instruments
3. Ada-ada – verses that built excitement and are accompanied by the knocking of a small mallet the puppet box or a set of metal plates

 

Performance Area

The wayang setting is much more like a Western sports even than a serious theater.  The general performance area is a partly open pavilion or hall that is temporarily transformed into a booth about three meters wide by four meters in length.  This booth is needed to hold the white screen that the shadow puppets are projected onto by the oil lamp.  Thus, the screen is the stage in wayang. The directional orientation of this hut-looking stage is important to win God’s favor.  Wayang performances are expected to face the shrine, toward the pure direction, to offer the performance for God.  This direction, koja (north) and kangin (east – toward the highest mountain) is considered the pure dwelling place for god, where the temple, shrine and other sacred places are typically built.  The stage is erected in an open space and a short distance from the dwellings to keep spirits away from human habitations.

With a big audience and many different tastes, the dalang is challenged to keep the audience’s attention. Although it is not shameful to sleep through something (even though others may be enjoying it), the dalang knows he will not entertain everyone at all times, so he uses jokes, philosophy, action and poetic language to keep all tastes of the audience entertained.  Further, the dalang faces two audiences – the essential audience and the non-essential audience.  The non-essential audience refers to the one described above that consists of various people with various responses.  The essential audience refers to the unseen – spirits, demons, creatures, gods and ancestors.  The dalang speaks in Old Javanese and Sanskrit to this audience as they are the only ones that understand the language.  The first words of wayang are uttered softly to this unseen audience as prayers to the sources of power.  Before the dalang arrives at the place of performance he establishes relations with this wider spiritual context.

Stage

There is traditionally minimal scenery in wayang theater.  The dalang defines the stage by sticking the largest, demonic puppet (Butha Siu or Wisnumurti) at the right edge of the screen and Butha Sia or Ludramurti at the left edge.  The kayonan, or tree of life puppet, is also used to represent other scenic images in a flexible manner.  This puppet is used to begin and end a performance, as well as to shift from one scene to another.  The tree of life is oval shaped and represents many natural elements and objects including water, fire, wind, ocean, a cloud, earth, the forest, house, etc.  The kayonan is placed within the acting area without changing the basic frame of the two demons.  In addition to the puppets, lighting is occasionally dimmed, special effects are created or mood/emotions of a scene are altered by klopekan gadebon, a piece of banana log.

Music

There has never been a wayang show without music.  Musicians and the dalang work together like a team that has been working together for a sufficient length of time.  Thus experience and chemistry is key between the musicians and dalang – just because they both are the best in their respective skill does not mean that they will work well together.  Musicians must closely follow the dalang’s cues to adjust the piece, rhythm or tempo.  There are specific triggers for this relationship, some of which include:

1. When the dalang raps rhythmically on the puppet box
2. When the puppets perform certain movements or patterns of movement
3. During the dramatic narrative
4. When the dalang sings his lines
5. During routine ritualistic action

 

Wayang Stories

Most of the stories are based on two epic stories from India – the Mahabharata and its sister work, the Ramayana.  Wayang has reference to a mythology accessible in Old Javanese/Sanskrit literature, primarily of these two great epics.  The plot does not need to draw from these epics, although they usually do, and the performance is divided into many different episodes.  Thus, the dalang can select what he wants to use from the epics without violating any constraints.  Now, Balinese and Javanese have combined the Hindu stories with Buddhist and Muslim ideas and their own folklore.

One important character, Arjuna, is the hero of the Mahabharata, the longest Indian epic.  Arjuna is the third of five Pandava brothers and son of King Pandu and one of his wives, Kunti.  Kunti, at a young age, was given a gift where she could summon upon the gods at will to beget her children, so she summoned the god Indra, whom is actually Arjuna’s father.  The bow and arrow, a respectable battle skill in Indian tradition, are Ajuna’s choice as a warrior.  Arjuna is not much of a family man as he constantly goes off looking for action.  Throughout the epic, Arjuna encounters a number of adventures, goes into exile for thirteen years, and marries Draupadi (who happens to be married to all five Pandava brothers).  Arjuna has many adventures with Krishna (the god), who he treats like a peer rather than the supreme god that he is.  Arjuna goes on a warrior path with Krishna, where they together burn down the Khandava Forest so it becomes suitable for building the Pandava capital city.  Another of Arjuna’s significant adventures is when he travels to the world of the god Indra.  On his way, Arjuna fights the god Shiva, who assumes the form of a mountain man.  Arjuna then spends ten years in Indra’s heaven and learns how to dance.

 

Wayang Today

“Wayang kulit is dying, killed by western ideas and, especially, by the Cinemas.” (Rentse 300)

Today there still remain major wayang performers known all Java.  They appear on TV and the radio and, and cassettes of their performances are available in stores.  Although traditionally most dalang were descendants of the families of traditional performers, in the twentieth century there began to be performers who were not trained by their own elders.  Recently, national high schools and colleges opened programs where students can study puppetry.

 

 

Discussion Questions

1. According to the quote in the section “Wayang Today,” wayang is dying due to recent technologies, such as cinema.  In fact, most theater around the world is being replaced by these other sources of entertainment.  Is this emergence of new technologies a threat to wayang (and traditional theater around the world), or can it be used to make artists and their art better known to people all over the world?  In other words, are these new technologies necessarily bad for wayang and global theater?
2. The introductory quote says that the audience builds a personal relationship with the puppets as if they were real actors on stage.  What skills must the dalang use to bring these shadows to life?
3. How does religion play a role in wayang theater, specifically in the plot/structure of performances, its origin and its transformation throughout history? Why have the Javanese traditions remained even with the emergence of Islam?
4. How do you interpret “coincidence” as described above since this is a foreign concept to plots in Western theater?

 

Bibliography

Works Cited

1. Becker, A.L. “Text-building, Epistemology and Aesthetics in Javanese Shadow Theater.” Disposito, vol. 5, no. 13/14, 1980, pp. 137-168.
2. DeArment, Cliff. Wayang Kulit of Indonesia. www.balibeyond.com/wayang. Accessed 10 Apr. 2017.
3. Rentse, Anker. “The Kelantan Shadow-Play: (Wayang Kulit).” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 14, no. 3, 1947, pp. 284-301.
4. Rentse, Anker. “The Origin of the Wayang Theater (Shadow Play).” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 20, no. 1, 1947, pp. 12-15.
5. Sedana, Inyoman.  Kawi Dalang: Creativity in Wayang Theater. 2002.
6. The History of Indonesian Puppet Theater (Wayang). 2012. www.education.asianart.org. Accessed 10 Apr. 2017.
7. Van Ness, Edward C., and Shita Prawirohardjo. Javanese Wayang Kulit. Oxford University Press, 1980.
8. Violatti, Cristian. Arjuna. 15 Sep. 2013. http://www.ancient.eu/Arjuna/. Accessed 10 Apr. 2017.

Image and Video Citation

1. Crisco 1942. Cepot in Wayang Golek Form. 14 May 2015. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayang#/media/File:Cepot_in_wayang_golek_form,_2015-05-14_03.jpg. Wikimedia, Accessed 11 Apr. 2017. Public Domain.
2. Crisco 1942. Wayang Kulit of Semar. 4 Dec. 2011. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wayang_Kulit_of_Semar.jpg. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.
3. Jpatokal. Wayank Kulit Scene. 28 Nov. 2005. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WayangKulit_Scene_Zoom.JPG. Accessed 10 Apr. 2017. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.
4. Kartapranata, Gunawan. Wayang Performance. 31 Jul. 2010. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wayang_Performance.jpg. Accessed 10 Apr. 2017. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.
5. Masgatotkaca. Arjun. 27 Mar. 2008. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arjun.JPG. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.
6. Savitri, Afrilia. Wayang Kulit Ardi Bakrie Nia Ramadhani. 4 Nov. 2015. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:87600_wayang_kulit_ardi_bakrie_nia_ramadhani.jpg. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
7. “The Wayang Puppet Theater.” YouTube, uploaded by UNESCO, 28 Sep. 2009, www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/missing-page-404-00404.
8. Zwegers, Arian. Yokyakarta, Wayan Kulit. 10 Jun. 2011. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Yogyakarta,_Wayang_Kulit_(6952590413).jpg. Accessed 11 Apr. 2017. Licensed under CC BY 2.0.